Scientists once wondered why dominant traits like tan-colored giraffe spots do not become more frequent with each generation and replace recessive traits like dark brown spots. In thinking about this conundrum, in 1908, independent from each other, Godfrey H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg independently derived a theory, today known as the Hardy-Weinberg Principle and represented by this equation.
The principle states that in the absence of evolution, i.e. at equilibrium, the allele and genotype frequencies of a population will remain constant from one generation to the next. To understand this equation, let’s go back to the giraffe example. Uppercase A represents the tan allele since it is dominant, and lowercase a is for the brown allele because it is recessive. The frequency of these two alleles in the population are designated as p and q respectively. So how do we know the allele frequency? Well, each individual has two alleles. In this example, 40% of the alleles in the gene pool are tan. Thus, the frequency of the tan allele, p, is 0.4, and the frequency of the brown allele, q, is 0.6. Note that p plus q is always equal to one.
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Now let’s go back to the Hardy-Weinberg equation. Each term in the equation represents one genotype frequency. The frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype is p squared, and the homozygous recessive is represented by q squared. The heterozygous genotype is two pq. The reason we multiply by two here is that there are two different ways of generating a heterozygous genotype. Combined, these all represent 100% of genotypes. Thus, a total frequency of one. Using the values for p and q from our giraffe example, we can determine the genotype distribution of the color gene alleles in our giraffe population. Therefore, as per the Hardy-Weinberg Principle, at equilibrium, 16% of the giraffe population will be homozygous dominant, 48% will be heterozygous, and 36% are homozygous recessive.
To maintain this balance, the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Principle states that a population should meet five main assumptions. There should be random mating, large population size, no mutation, no selection on the gene in question, and no gene flow in or out of the population. Most natural populations violate at least one of these assumptions and so equilibrium is rare…but in spite of this, the principle is used as a null model for population genetics. By comparing these expected values to the actual genotype frequency in a population, it can be determined whether that population is in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium. If not, then this means that some form of evolution or change in allele frequency is taking place.
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A general misconception about evolution is that it requires natural selection to occur. However, this is not always the case. Genetic drift is one mechanism by which evolution can occur without natural selection. It is defined as a change in the allele frequency of a population due to chance. To envision this, let’s go back to the example of a giraffe population and imagine their alleles of tan and brown being represented by marbles of two different colors. We will assume here that each color starts out equally abundant. If we were to start a new generation out of this population, we would need to breed pairs of individuals and thus select from four alleles per pair. If we select a breeding pair at random, then we might end up with two marbles of each color. However, by chance alone, some pairings will have only one color marble, or three of one color and one of the other. These chance deviations from 50-50 over multiple pairings to create a new generation might mean that the next generation no longer has an equal mixture of each allele.
It’s this variation of relative allele frequencies over time that defines genetic drift. Therefore, unlike adaptive evolution, where allele frequency changes to select for traits that are fit for the environment, like ladybugs with a greater amount of melanin surviving better in colder climates because of an improved ability to absorb heat, genetic drift represents a type of evolution that is purely due to stochastic change. For example, the random removal of a section of a population through a catastrophic event.
In this lab, you will perform computer and colored bead simulations of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and genetic drift in a population, and then test what happens when assumptions of the equilibrium are violated.
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