Cancer cells possess distinct characteristics that differentiate them from normal cells. These characteristics include an accelerated cell cycle, genomic alterations, invasive growth, increased mobility, chemotaxis, changes in the cellular surface, and secretion of lytic factors.
Morphological and Functional Traits of Malignant Cells
Morphologically, cancerous cells exhibit a large irregularly shaped nucleus with prominent nucleoli. The cytoplasm is either scarce and intensely colored or pale. The nucleus undergoes significant changes, such as alterations in surface, volume, shape, and structure. Ultrastructural characteristics involve nucleus segmentation, changes in chromatin, and formation of inclusions.
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The nucleolus shows hypertrophy, macro- and microsegregation, and movement towards the membrane. Mitoses are more frequent in malignant cells, often accompanied by atypical forms of chromosomes and defects in the mitotic spindle.
Nuclear changes result in the presence of different cell clones and genetic anomalies. In intensely anaplastic tumors, gigantic nuclei and multinucleate cells are observed, indicating abnormal divisions. These morphological changes reflect alterations at the metabolic level, with an increase in structures related to cell division.
The cytoplasm of malignant cells also undergoes changes. New structures appear or normal structures disappear. Basophilic staining is observed due to the accumulation of ribosomal and messenger RNA. The amount of cytoplasm in malignant cells is reduced, often containing vacuoles.
The granular endoplasmic reticulum in tumor cells appears simplified, with fragmentation and degranulation. Free ribosomes and polysomes increase, indicating enhanced protein production for cell growth. The agranular endoplasmic reticulum undergoes hyperplasia during the initiation phase and reduction in later stages.
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The Golgi apparatus is poorly developed in malignant cells, correlating with the lack of tumor cell differentiation. Mitochondria decrease in volume and exhibit variability in shape and volume. Abnormal glycolysis processes occur, known as the “Warburg phenomenon.” Peroxisomes are only present in tumors formed by cells that normally contain these organelles.
Glycogen, although abundant in some malignancies, generally decreases or disappears as lipids increase. Lysosomes undergo changes, including the appearance of secondary lysosomes, myelinic structures, and lipofuscin granules. Degenerative cellular changes can be seen as cytoplasmic inclusions and the occurrence of apoptosis with apoptotic bodies.
The cytoskeleton of malignant cells contains microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules in different proportions. The actin content contributes to the capacity of invasion and metastasis. Different types of tumors express characteristic proteins, such as cytokeratins in epithelial carcinomas and vimentin in mesenchymal tumors.
Changes in Cell Membrane and Basal Membrane
The cell membrane plays a crucial role in the malignancy process. Surface molecular changes influence tumor evolution and host reactions. Abnormal surface molecules can act as antigens, triggering immune responses. Malignant cells change their enzyme content, including a reduction in acid or alkaline phosphatase.
The cell surface displays differentiation antigens, reflecting normal development and specific tumor antigens resulting from oncogenic transformation. Changes in receptor distribution alter cell agglutination behavior. Atypical microvilli, pseudopods, and vesicles with active enzymatic equipment appear on the cell surface.
The basal membrane is present in benign tumors but undergoes fragmentation, reduplication, or disappearance in invasive growth. The basal membrane’s loss is considered a fundamental criterion for differentiating between benign and malignant tumors. Changes in basal membrane structure and composition facilitate tumor invasion and metastasis.
Functional Changes and Proliferation
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Malignant cells produce and eliminate various active substances, including growth factors, hormones, and lytic enzymes. Energy metabolism in cancer cells differs from normal cells, favoring glycolysis and glucose utilization. This poor use of oxygen and high glucose consumption leads to lactic acid production.
Uncontrolled proliferation is a characteristic of malignant tumors. The cell cycle is disrupted, resulting in abnormal cell maturation and apoptosis. Genomic alterations persist throughout tumor evolution, creating instability within cell lines. The loss of differentiation and simplification of malignant cell structures occur, resembling fetal cells.
Tumor growth and migration are unpredictable. Cells invade neighboring tissues by dissolving the extracellular matrix using hydrolytic enzymes. The invasive growth of malignant cells destroys the host tissue through enzymatic processes and atrophy. The loss of differentiation contributes to the histological variety of tumor cell populations.
Malignant cell populations consist of subpopulations and subclones with varying invasiveness, aggressiveness, and metastatic potential. Heterogeneity within tumors and host tissue reactions make tumor therapy challenging. Cytostatic treatment targets malignant subpopulations with high proliferation and invasion capacity.
The involvement of host tissue plays a crucial role in tumor development. Immunological and non-immunological mechanisms initiate host tissue reactions against tumor cells. Vascularization affects tumor growth, with poorly vascularized tumors exhibiting slower development. Tumor angiogenesis factors stimulate the formation of new blood vessels.
In summary, understanding the characteristics of cancer cells is essential for comprehending the mechanisms involved in tumor development and progression. The unique traits of malignant cells, including morphological, functional, and genetic changes, contribute to their invasive growth and metastatic potential. These insights provide valuable information for developing effective cancer treatments.
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